Knowledge management in the not-for-profit sector: introduction

Knowledge management in the not-for-profit sector: introductio

Participatory action research: a winning strategy for KM

Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to contribute to an emerging debate centred on the ways in which knowledge management (KM) might be effectively researched and, in turn, how KM practice might be improved. Design/methodology/approach – Burrell and Morgan's paradigms are used to set the scene and to highlight the changing focus in three closely related areas – research per se, the KM movement and KM research. Albeit the changes are not occurring simultaneously, the general trend in these areas is similar i.e. there is a move from a functionalist stance to one based on interpretivism. Next, case study research and participatory action research (PAR) are introduced as examples of research approaches that, respectively, tend to reflect the functionalist and interpretivist paradigms. Then there is an analysis of a KM research project from each of these approaches. Each research project is analysed with respect to five dimensions and in terms of the benefits that the organisation gained for its KM practice. The analysis is used as a vehicle to propose that PAR makes a significant contribution in tackling some of the acknowledged obstacles to effective KM practice. Findings – The characteristics of PAR would appear to complement KM activities. As such, PAR is put forward as a strategy for meaningfully researching KM while, simultaneously, improving KM practice. Originality/value – This paper accelerates discussion about how KM research is undertaken and demonstrates how the synergy between PAR and KM can be exploited for the benefit of KM researchers and practitioners

A systemic model of engineering knowledge management from the energy sector

Knowledge management (KM) is key to the delivery of impact from the activities of any organisation. Impact is not just about delivering economic benefit but encompasses a wide range of outcomes including environmental improvement, cultural diversity and social change. While expressions of knowledge use and application often form crucial elements of models for implementing KM, it is rare to see ‘impact’ included within them. Some models of KM seek to address this by introducing notions of knowledge ‘evaluation’ and ‘validation’. However, none appear to have taken the holistic approach explored in this paper, based on an ethnographic study of a knowledge intensive organisation in the energy sector. The case study organisation, the Energy Technologies Institute (ETI), is a partnership between industry and the UK Government set up in 2007 under a ten-year operational model with an innovation budget of up to £60 M per annum. It seeks to reduce the environmental impact of energy use and production by accelerating innovation in low carbon technologies. Guided by these objectives, the models that shaped the KM practices within the ETI have developed over time. They are ultimately focussed on creating a legacy from the organisation’s activities and delivering long term impact. In its final form, the approach employed by the ETI is based around a systemic model which: 1.Takes account of the interdependencies of data creation, information architecture and knowledge management 2.Creates outcomes through the delivery of ‘benefits’ to ‘beneficiaries’ 3.Recognises that knowledge ‘from’ and ‘about’ beneficiaries is as important in the process as the creation of knowledge ‘for’ them This case study shows that KM models can be highly effective when they are fully integrated into ‘impact delivery’ processes

The impact of e-mail on work-life balance

Purpose – This paper aims to illustrate how a company's current 24-hour e-mail culture impacts on employees' lives outside of their contracted working hours. There are two objectives of the study – first, to calculate the average time spent on work e-mails by employees per day outside of working hours and, second, to identify what impact e-mail had on employees' work-life balance by addressing three research questions. These questions aims to focus on the relationships between: employees' thoughts about company culture and their belief that their work is dependent on them checking their e-mails outside of working hours; employees' urges to check e-mails out of working hours and their belief that spending time on e-mails outside of work means they are neglecting their social life; and employees sending e-mails out of office hours and their expectation of a quick reply or action. Design/methodology/approach – A case study approach was taken. Employees from a multinational service organisation were invited to complete an online questionnaire and a seven-day diary so as to collect qualitative and quantitative data about their use of e-mail. Findings – Data were analysed with respect to respondents' gender, role and length of service in the organisation and discussed with respect to the current literature. Research limitations/implications – Although the limitations of exploring a single organisation are recognised, it is likely that some of the insights and lessons generated by the study will be transferable to other organisational settings. Practical implications – This study identified some short-term recommendations as to how a particular company could limit the negative impact that e-mails have on its employees' lives outside of contracted working hours. In addition, this study will also raise awareness of the pervasion of work-related communications into employees' personal lives and, hopefully, trigger further research into the long-term psychological and sociological effects of a 24/7 communication culture. Originality/value – There are two novel aspects to this study: the use of diaries as a method of data collection and the notion of exploring e-mail use “out of hours”

Bridging the gap between intellectual capital models: an ancestry/chronology approach

Since the first coining of the term ‘intellectual capital’ (IC) in Stewart’s “Brainpower” article of 1991, IC has gained popularity and interest amongst researchers from different disciplines as a source of attaining and maintaining competitive advantages. The result of these disciplines (e.g. human resources, accounting, marketing and finance) feeding into the IC literature has been a dramatic increase in the number of IC models. The diversity of the models has given rise to different approaches for realising the value of IC, provided different taxonomies for classifying IC, and introduced different practices for managing, measuring and reporting IC. This variety has made it a challenge for organisations to select the appropriate model to systematically manage, measure and report their organisational knowledge. This paper visualises the roots of IC models in the literature by examining the foundations and principles on which they are based. Such a visualisation affords the opportunity to establish common bases for IC modelling in order to reduce the diversity between IC models and increase their practical applicability. These bases are: the tendency towards enhancing the taxonomy of IC, and the tendency towards establishing the practices of managing, measuring and reporting IC. The main contribution of this paper is three ancestry/chronology diagrams that visualise fifty-four IC models and the rationale behind their development, which in turn brings greater coherence to the literature on IC modelling and conceptualisation

Knowledge audit: findings from a case study in the energy sector

Knowledge audits are important processes through which organisations can understand what knowledge is needed, available and used for their current activities. They can also identify what knowledge is missing and how this omission restricts the organisation’s activities. Hence, knowledge audits can surface initiatives to improve the knowledge management (KM) processes of an organisation and, in turn, improve efficiency and effectiveness. An iterative cycle of knowledge audits allows for the organisation’s changing environment to be taken account of and for appropriate modifications to be made to the knowledge base. Despite the importance of knowledge audits, literature relating to their undertaking is sparse. This paper addresses the scarcity of such literature and reports the findings of a knowledge audit commissioned by an organisation that brings together public bodies and private organisations with the aim of maximising the collective knowledge, expertise and experience of its diverse members to address a nationally recognised research agenda. The audit included collecting qualitative data from a series of in-depth interviews with a representative sample of employees from the four main departments within the organisation. Interviewees were asked about their own roles, procedures and knowledge needs; they were also asked about their department’s knowledge requirements and about knowledge interfaces with external partners. Views about the culture and structure of the organisation were also sought. Results were analysed at a departmental level to form two knowledge maps per department – one illustrating the knowledge required by the department, the knowledge shared with other departments and the mechanisms for sharing this knowledge; the other illustrated knowledge flows with external partners. The maps were then used in conjunction with the interview transcripts to identify the strengths and weaknesses of each department’s knowledge activities. This process focussed on the impact of organisational culture and structure as well as the effectiveness of technological and ‘soft’ solutions for knowledge sharing. Following from the departmental analysis, a cross department comparison enabled best practices and company-wide weaknesses to be identified. Seven resulting recommendations were made that would support the sharing of departmental best practices and address organisational weaknesses: 1. Developing a holistic approach to knowledge sharing 2. Nurturing the organisational culture 3. Clarifying the strategic message 4. Improving the organisation of information 5. Improving the availability of staff 6. Developing inter-departmental communication 7. Commissioning future knowledge audits In addition to reporting the outcomes and outputs of the process, the paper also highlights challenges of the process and includes reflections on the suitability of the selected data collection and analysis methods for a knowledge audit

Moving KM to the next generation: The contribution of critical systems thinking

Knowledge Management (KM) is multifaceted and grounded in various disciplines including psychology, strategy, organizational behavior, economics, and management. It is therefore not surprising that KM has developed rapidly as a field with a myriad of frameworks designed to address KM needs in organizations. The emphasis of studies tends to be on the application of KM with paucity in the discussion of its theory and underpinning philosophy. As a result, KM is varied in definition and application. The range of KM tools and practices has caused some concern with authors suggesting that there is need for KM to be applied in an integrated manner. Systems Thinking (ST) is the conceptual framework for problem solving that views situations holistically. Critical Systems Thinking (CST) is the latest movement in ST that was born from the need to appreciate the diversity in approaches so as to identify the most suitable methodology for a problem context. CST is described by the commitments of critical awareness, sociological awareness, pluralism, complementarity and human emancipation. The application of CST is said to have reformed ST through its commitments and brought synthesis through the provision of a rational approach of combining system methodologies. Activities that create, capture and utilize knowledge are inherent in systems methods thus indicating a similarity between ST and KM. Authors have as such, called for the use of CST to underpin KM theory and practice. This paper highlights the contribution of CST to the maturity of Systems Thinking as a discipline. Potential use of CST in developing more unified, systemic and holistic approaches to handling KM is put forward. The aim is to spark conversation on the need for a new generation of KM that is grounded theoretically and philosophically, and based on more than practical case studies

Knowledge sharing and information security: a paradox?

This paper presents the findings of a knowledge sharing and information security literature review and identifies an interesting research gap in the intersection of the two practices. In a fast changing environment where there is increasing need to understand customers’ demands and competitors’ strategies (Lin et al, 2012), knowledge sharing is recognised as an essential activity for organisational success (Wasko and Faraj, 2005; Renzl, 2008). Organisations continuously aim to exploit existing knowledge, seek new ways to improve and increase knowledge sharing activities, as well as to identify and reduce possible knowledge sharing barriers. However, albeit the integral role and benefits of knowledge sharing having been widely recognised, the security or protection of knowledge has not received the same level of attention. Although the importance of protecting knowledge has been stressed by some researchers (e.g. Gold et al, 2001; Desouza and Awazu, 2004; Desouza 2006; Ryan, 2006), research into the ‘softer’ or the human behaviour aspects of knowledge protection is scarce. Information security is another field that has grown tremendously and is now a globally recognised discipline (Gifford, 2009) receiving attention from academics and practitioners (Wiant, 2005). Information security measures aim to prevent the loss or leakage of an organisation’s valuable information and manage the resulting cost of any loss. Despite organisations’ investments in prevention measures, information security breaches are still common where humans are often seen as the weakest link and ‘incorrect’ human behaviour as the most common point of failure. However, much of the research carried out to prevent information security breaches focuses on technical facets (Gordon and Loeb, 2006; Coles-Kemp, 2009). From the literature review, it is evident that knowledge sharing and information security have become well-established concepts in academia and within organisations. However, the middle ground between these two equally important, and adjacent, practices, has received inadequate attention. Knowledge sharing aims to encourage individuals to share knowledge with colleagues, organisational partners and suppliers; on the other hand, information security initiatives aim to apply controls and restrictions to the knowledge that can be shared and how it is shared. This paper draws attention to the perceived paradoxical nature of knowledge sharing and information security and raises awareness of the potential conflict that could compromise the protection of knowledge, or alternatively, reduce the openness of knowledge sharing

Evaluating a living model of knowledge

The definition of knowledge has always been a contentious issue in knowledge management. Effective knowledge management requires a definition of knowledge that is consistent, useful and true. Whilst most definitions today fulfil the first two criteria, none accurately address all three, including the true, biological nature of knowledge. This is where autopoiesis can help. Autopoiesis was developed to try answer the question of what makes something living, using a scientific methodology. It proposes living things are discrete, self-producing entities and constantly cognising entities. Autopoiesis has long inspired definitions of knowledge, with ideas such as: knowledge cannot be transferred, or knowledge can only be created by the potential ‘knower’. Using the theory of autopoiesis, it is possible to create a biologically grounded model of knowledge, representing the latest thinking in neuroscience. However, before this new, biologically grounded model of knowledge can be integrated into new or existing knowledge management theories, it needs to be tested, else it falls into the trap of being conceptual, and remaining that way. This paper starts with the autopoietic, and therefore biologically, grounded model of knowledge, and develops the new evaluation framework necessary to test the model. The evaluation methodology developed in this research started from the field of programme evaluation and was adapted to meet the needs of the knowledge management discipline. This paper subsequently presents the initial findings from the evaluation process and takes the first steps to identifying how knowledge management can improve with its newly found scientific grounding

Identification of tacit knowledge associated with experience: a Chinese software industry study

This paper reports on a research project that aimed at identifying the professional and personal experience from individuals in the SMEs in the Software (SW) industry sector in China. This study employed an inductive qualitative approach based on a single case study and grounded theory (GT) data analysis. The SW company is a SME that specialises in multimedia SW research and development and is located in Xiamen City (Fujian Province, South of China). Six participants, selected on the basis of their role in SW design and development, were interviewed using a semi‐structured interview script. These in‐depth interviews ranged from 100 to 120 minutes in length. After completing the open coding of the six interview transcripts, the researcher obtained 121 codes and 215 quotations from the interview data. These codes were grouped and organized into a category hierarchy that included 6 main structured categories as the result of axial coding. The results of the study enabled the development of a taxonomy and classification of tacit knowledge related to experience in the different stages of the SW development process. The study also showed that each identified category of tacit knowledge is not necessarily confined to one specific SW development stage or even to a specific role in the process. This emergent theory challenges traditional perceptions that each stage requires very precise types of skills, experience and even types of individuals